Love the Little Things

Love the Little Things Last summer, I made the mistake of letting my friends, Tyler and Calvin, talk me into going camping for the weekend! While I did feel a tinge of excitement, the overwhelming feeling I had in the pit of my gut what that of anxiousness. I had never been camping before in my life! So many thoughts such as, â€Å"What if it rains? † â€Å"What if an animal attacks our site? † just kept racing through my mind. However, when they guys came to get me that morning and I saw all of the supplies and food they had brought with them, for our three day camping extravaganza, I knew everything was going to be okay.Boy, how wrong I was! Even with the best planning, camping can be an extremely frustrating experience do to uncontrolled factors such as poor weather, encounters with wildlife, and equipment failures. When envisioning the perfect camping trip, it is likely that good, sunny, weather outweighs a vision of a cold, rainy, forecast. However, not every campe r is so lucky. They may begin their journey with clear blue skies, but the closer they come to their destination, the more gray and cloudy the skies become.Once arriving at their campsite, they may be forced to set up their shelter in the pouring down rain! This may not seem like a very hard task to accomplish, but when you have to focus on not only getting the tent set up, but not tracking any mud inside, and getting the sleeping bags set-up without getting them soaking wet, it can become quite a challenge! If the sleeping bags do become wet from the rain, the cold also becomes a major factor. This is because when camping, there are two sources of heat available. One is fire, and the other is a campers sleeping bag.However, if it is already raining and windy outside, the chances of being able to use the first source of heat is highly unlikely. In this case, campers turn to their sleeping bags for warmth. If these are also wet, like the logs a camper would use to start a fire, then the sleeping bag is unfortunately, no source of heat either. While it is advised that campers check the weekend forecast before embarking on their trip, it isn’t always guaranteed to be accurate, and campers should still try to plan ahead for these kind of situations.Another problem campers are likely to be faced with is wildlife. Although not all wildlife the campers may encounter will cause a nuisance. Such as birds, rabbits, or squirrels. Some of the wildlife may be a different story. Wildlife like this may include mosquitoes, raccoons, and snakes. Mosquitoes cause many problems for campers if the proper bug repellent is not used. They bite human flesh, and leave behind an unruly urge to scratch at oneself all night. Only causing the itching sensation to increase even more!While Raccoons may not always directly interfere with campers, it does not mean they aren’t just as capable of causing an equal amount of problems. They often travel in groups of two or three, and become the most active at night. The campsite of an unsuspecting, inexperienced, camper can make the perfect place for these naughty rascalls to find dinner. Especially if this camper has forgotten to seal up their food in its proper containers, or if they forgot to zip their tent completely shut. For raccoons will break into anything they can get into in order to feed themselves.Snakes can also be a problem for the unsuspecting camper if they get inside the tent. Once inside, they will slither into sleeping bags or a pile of clothes to sleep, and hide from the elements. In some cases, the discovery of an animal like this could be fatal. Run-ins with wildlife like this can range from unpleasant, to dangerous, in a matter of seconds. However, the camper must realize that some of these encounters are inevitable. In addition, probably one of the most frustrating, yet least serious, problems a camper may face is equipment failures.Although all campers seem to encounter problems such as these at one time or another. They seem to mostly affect the, â€Å"first time camper. † They may get a late start getting on the road to their campsite, and by the time they arrive it is already getting dark. Then they must begin their attempt to construct the tent they will be using as shelter, while they can barely see what they are doing. While it looks fine in the dim light of the fire, during the night the campers awaken to a loud crash, and then feel something heavy on top of them. It was the tent collapsing.Sleepily, the campers are forced to exit the tent and try to find a way to fix it in the dark of night. However, there is no fixing. The rods to hold the frame of the tent have snapped, and the waterproof seal has been broken from the campers not zipping the doors and windows shut all the way before using it. Totally disgusted form the events prior, the campers decide to just pack up and head on home. Although equipment failures might not seem very serious, for ca mpers who have had to deal with bad weather, and annoying wildlife, these failures can shred any remaining hope of a peaceful camping trip!These three types of problems can be experienced while camping anywhere. Until someone is able to figure out how to control the weather, get rid of pesky wildlife, or not experience equipment failures, all campers will continue to shake their heads in frustration, because these things happen. If you want to be able to enjoy camping and make it a memorable experience for yourself, you need to be able to laugh at bad weather, enjoy annoying wildlife, and accept issues with your equipment, or you will always be frustrated and unhappy.

Health Issues in the Aborigines Culture

Health Issues in the Aborigines Culture Over the course of history, the state of Aboriginal health has deteriorated in a relation much similar to the culture’s struggle to survive in the ever-changing society. As a result, this state has changed from an ideal balance with nature during the days of their hunter-gatherer lifestyle, to the more disoriented form of endurance in order to cope with obligatory integration and open antagonism by other ‘modern’ communities (Grbich, 2004).This has led to an augmentation of the encumbrance of illness and death as well as diverse forms of morbidity that Aboriginal communities experience throughout their lives. It is indeed ironical that while under the context of an organized and industrialized nation such as Australia, indigenous communities continue to face increased health problems even despite countrywide efforts at eradicating health risks thereby reducing mortality rates for children and adults alike as well as communic able and non-communicable morbidity indicators.Indigenous health problems are also noted to be a combination of third world-associated quandaries such as high rates of maternal and infant mortality as well as low life expectancy, malnutrition and other communicable diseases; as well as more ‘Western lifestyle’ health problems such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, drug and alcohol abuse, mental illness, and many others (Lewis, 2003). This paper therefore looks at the epidemiology of the state of health for the Aboriginal community, delving into the possible sociological reasons behind this increasingly deplorable condition.At the same time, a clearer perspective will be offered into the widening gap that is noted between the state of health for Aboriginal communities and that of other Australians further putting this into a social context. The effect of a modern society on health care provision to indigenous communities is also discussed, as well as the health issue s facing these people such as high blood pressure, stress, drugs, alcohol and poor children’s health. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008), the Aboriginal community faces higher rates of ill health than any other group in Australia.From the estimate of an average of 450,000 Aborigines in Australia, it is observed that when compared to other communities, this community faces enhanced problems of chronic illness and problems from cigarette smoking in addition to other health issues. Among the various problems faced by the Aboriginal people include children’s health issues. These include low birth weight accompanied by an infant mortality rate that is almost three times that of the national average; such a figure results to 15. 2 deaths of Aborigine infants as compared to 5 from other communities per 1,000 births (Thomas, 2003).Other factors connected to low birth weight include that of an enhanced risk for consequent diseases during puberty and adultho od that may lead to neonatal death. Low birth weight of the infant is associated with a slow growth rate and short pregnancy length, with Aboriginal women noted to have a 12. 4% chance to have a low birth weight baby as compared to 6. 2% for a non-Aboriginal woman (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Other issues noted in Aboriginal children include the prevalence of poverty among the members of this group thereby leading to ill-health and poor benefits especially for the young.In addition to a higher rate of low birth weight in Aboriginal women, their children also face a greater risk of malnutrition. The advantage of breastfeeding is noted during the early months, with this offering an additional defense against common infant diseases. However, after weaning, the lack of nutritious foods increases the likelihood of children to contract infectious diseases further enhancing the children’s malnutrition. Other health problems faced by children include the prevalence of mid dle ear infection, consequently affecting the learning abilities of the child that may have speech and hearing problems.At the same time, the high rate of smoking among the Aboriginal community leads to a high exposure of the children to tobacco smoke during pregnancy and even after birth. This then leads to the noted increase in the prevalence of respiratory disorders including asthma and other related ailments. Other diseases faced by pre-pubescent Aborigines include chest and throat infections as well as injuries from accidents. Adult male Aborigines also face higher risks of accidental injuries as compared to non-aboriginal adult males.This increases their chances for hospitalization which is also enhanced by heart and chest diseases as well as digestive tract ailments. Aboriginal women similarly have higher rates of urinary and reproductive complications as compared to non-aboriginal women with the latter complications leading to strained pregnancy and births. On an overall bas is, members of the Aboriginal communities are twice as likely to be hospitalized as compared their non-aboriginal counterparts (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). These results from an enhanced susceptibility to injuries sustained during accidents as well as the aforementioned causes.It is also noted that Aboriginal people usually have a higher vulnerability to infectious diseases such as sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, as well as other potentially fatal conditions such as Tuberculosis and Haemophilus influenza type b (Lutschini, 2005). Diet and nutrition plays a major role in the state of health of the Aboriginal people. Before the influence of settlers who arrived in Australia, Aboriginal people were used to their hunter-gatherer lifestyles that incorporated the consumption of wild meats and fallow plants.These customary foods were rich in nutrients, protein and carbohydrates, while also having limited supplies of sugars and fat. As a result, the Aboriginal people were healthy and did not face diet-related ailments. With the introduction of Westernized foods, which contain higher levels of sugars and fat, while being low on essential nutrients, the Aboriginal people have become more vulnerable to diet disorders such as diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular disease. This increased rate is also noted to be higher in Aborigines than in non-aborigines who are considered to be used to these ‘modern’ foods.Aboriginal people have also been noted to have a shorter life expectancy than that of non-indigenous communities with Aboriginal males expected to live for around 57 years as compared to 62 years for their female counterparts; this translates to a shortfall of around 18 to 20 years when compared to non-aborigines (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). There are diverse causes of this early death amongst the aborigines that include twice the rate of cardiovascular disorders that include strokes and heart failures as compared to non-aborigines.At the same time, aborigines are three times as likely to succumb to injuries sustained from accidents as well as other causes such as homicide and even suicide. When seeking an explanation as to these health profiles, it is important to take into consideration the historical context of the changing environment that the Aborigines have had to contend with. Prior to European colonization, these individuals were used to a supportive environment as well as a multifaceted social support network. They also had an advanced comprehension of their ecology which was advantageous in providing all their nutritional and health requirements.This was also enhanced by an active lifestyle whose foundation was a community that promoted a family culture that exhibited psychosocial veracity (White, 2002). The advent of colonization brought with it a change in lifestyle making the Aborigines more inactive and dependent on the European settlers. This resulted in t heir acquisition of undesirable products and infectious diseases that their health systems were not equipped to handle. At the same time, a societal shift was noted that clashed with the culture, heritage as well as the concept of family that the Aborigines were used to.In recent years, there has been an effort at social integration coupled with dealing with public health issues at all facets of the community (Carson, Dunbar & Chenhall, 2007). However, even with an overall reduction in the mortality and death rates of all Australians, it is noted that the Aboriginal community still records significantly higher rates of the same. Due to the overall effect that historical events have had on the Aboriginal community including lack of education, poor employment opportunities, elevated drug and alcohol abuse, the improvement of health amongst this community continues to be an uphill battle.Other problems are as a result of the lack of access to health services by some Aboriginal communit ies. This is credited to both the physical distance to such amenities as well as various aspects of cultural insensitivity. Due to the occupation of rural areas by the Aboriginal people, they accessibility to healthcare is hampered by the lack of transport usually resulting in less frequent visits to health professionals. The cultural perception about health and quality of health services also plays a major role in healthcare service provision (Germov, 2004).Indeed, it is noted that the Aborigines are more likely to be influenced by spiritual beliefs such as curses and punishment from alleged transgression than biomedical views on health. As a result, Aboriginal people are more likely to accept the views of traditional healers as opposed to opinions offered by Western health professionals. Other conflicts between traditional Aboriginal views and those provided under the constructs of biomedical provisions include the notion of informed consent especially when an approval is sought t o proceed with a medical procedure.For instance traditional applications of the role of kinship as well as community relationships will take precedence, in the minds of the Aborigines, over that of the sole consent of a patient (McGrath & Phillips, 2008). These cultural differences also expand into the concepts of immediacy and time, the comprehension of health and illness, as well as information on the potential benefits, and harms of treatment especially when a language barrier is present thereby hindering the patient-doctor interaction.In precis of the epidemiological aspects of Aboriginal health, it is noted that the advent of European colonization brought with it the change in the community’s health structure. This was either due to an alteration of the epidemiological dynamics of diseases that were already present including an induction of novel and contagious diseases, or by a change in lifestyle increasing the vulnerability of the indigenous people to such ailments.Ir respective of the sources of the problem, it is noted that the prevalence of health problems is higher in Aborigines than in non-aborigines with inequities arising due to inadequate healthcare for the former, as well as cultural disparities that exist between the two societies and that promote the further segregation of health services among them. When making considerations into the various views held by social theorists to the situations faced by Aborigines, a further analysis can be drawn into the health situation and the disparities faced by this community in relation to that of non-aborigines.Marx’s view of class, work and alienation, is such a theory. This theory has been utilized by many ideologists who have affirmed the presence of an oppressive structure in any society that is maintained by the dominant culture, language or social position (Western & Najman, 2000). The lesser group therefore undergoes manipulation and control at the will of the more ascendant group. T his phenomenon is also noted to traverse generations, cultures and time therefore being present in all societies.To further its causes, the dominant culture promotes its ideologies through education as well as other services provisions which favor the ruling class and keep the lesser group unaware of their rights. Thus the ownership of power of capital maintain structures that provide for the maintenance and concentration of this power among the elite thereby ensuring that it is not lost or watered down with the effects of time. Such structures, according to various social theorists, extend past the constructs of schools and education and even go as far as health provisions such as the case under study (McGrath & Phillips, 2008).In the societal and cultural context of the state of Aboriginal health in Australia, it can be argued that its structure over time has been altered to serve the best interests of the more dominant non-aboriginal communities. As a result, the Aboriginal peopl e have received constant interference, oppression and misinterpretation as to the rights that are provided to them in healthcare as well as other community services that they are entitled to. There are also similarities noted between this form domination and the colonialist tyranny by Europeans over other societies in Africa, South American and parts of East Asia.The main effect of such oppression was the changing of the mindset or perceptions of the indigenous communities as to their rights and the changes they had to make to their traditions (Grbich, 2004). Proponents of this view argue of its accurate assertion on the negative Western attitudes towards cultural aspects and the wellbeing of Aboriginal people and how these have been propagated in all aspects of the society, including healthcare provision.This can therefore be construed as the actions of a dominant culture that reserves its gains in science to not only promote the agenda of this ‘stronger’ community but to also portray the Aborigines as being crushed and submissive. This further alienates the two societies further alienating the Aboriginal people and resulting in cultural insensitivity. Indeed, this has been noted as one of the reasons behind why the Aborigines do not advocate for the use of biomedical options of treatment but opt to stick to traditional forms of healing based more on their spiritual beliefs.The sociological change in relation to this theory can be observed with the Aboriginal approach at self-empowerment in which they aim at gaining the necessary skills to seek their rights thereby gaining security from current and future forms of oppression. This is evident with the acceptance by the Aboriginal communities to not only seek biomedical approaches to treatment but to also comprehend the underlying aspects of science and language that the non-aboriginal communities had used to oppress them in the past.By taking a proactive approach at undertaking research into the h ealth issues affecting them as well as the possible application of their findings into their communities, the Aboriginal people are gaining assurance and assertion from the knowledge of medicine and other forms of science through. As a result, the possibility of improving their health and wellbeing becomes an ever-closer reality (White, 2002). Another perspective that can be adopted scrutinize issues based on Aboriginal health are those proposed by Erving Goffman.This theorist discussed various notions such as stigma, passing, deviance and social control and how these affected social structures and the manner in which individual members of a community interacted with each other. For instance, Goffman affirmed that the prevalence of stigma resulted from the lack of comprehension of an unknown, with this perspective leading to a change of attitude or behavior towards the object under scrutiny. This theorist further described three forms of stigma including physical abominations, imper fections of character, and tribal stigma (Lewis, 2003).Aspects of the latter form can therefore be observed in the provision of healthcare to Aboriginal communities being neglected by the mainstream communities that are predominantly non-aboriginal. This is due to a lack of understanding of the Aboriginal customs and beliefs especially regarding health and illness and the associated forms of treatment. Similarly proponents of the theorist’s views assert the clear observations of aspects of social control against Aboriginal communities in all aspects of the society, and including the healthcare system.In the past, some form of segregation has been observed amongst healthcare providers when offering their services to Aborigines and non-aborigines (Carson et al. , 2007). The poor delivery of health services the former leads to the deplorable health state of this particular community and can be further attributed to the widening gap between the states of health on a community lev el. Providing primary health care to meet specific Aboriginal needs has not been put under consideration with this being a major indicator of the flaws of the system.Various other social theorists have added their diverse views about the state of health of the Aboriginal community in Australia. According to McGrath & Phillips (2008), research into the effects of public health system and especially on the response by various institutions to indigenous public health needs is lacking. At the same time, healthcare provision for aboriginal communities is not directed by the needs of the indigenous people, as it should be, thereby demonstrating a flaw in the power structure between non-aboriginal health experts and Aboriginal health workers.As a result, provision of indigenous health care takes a back seat thereby promoting the already deplorable state of affairs. Such a notion is further promoted by the sociological view that the flaws in the public healthcare systems that are not in the favor of the Aboriginal community, stem from the unbalanced nature of the political economy. According to this perspective, the political and economic relations that exist promote the negative effects noted in the public healthcare system.The asymmetrical access that the Aboriginal people have to the political and economic resources in Australia is therefore translated into various structural and situational disadvantages such as the lack of access to health services by Aboriginal communities. At the same time, the public health system is flawed for dealing with population-based aspects of healthcare in which the population is considered to be asocial.The resultant notion therefore asserts that the public health system assumes that the needs of various communities are similar and that no underlying societal disparities exist (Western & Najman, 2000). The resultant situation is that of a system that deals with the needs of the predominant culture or community which in this case is t hat of the non-aborigines and neglects the needs of the lesser communities. This leads to the lack of appropriate health care for the needs of the Aboriginal people further adding to the poor state of health affairs faced by the indigenous societies.In retrospect, the sociological explanations behind the state of Aboriginal health are noted to be based on flaws in the political and economic structures that provide the basis of public health. As a result, a relation can be further made between the social and political influences and the provision of public healthcare to Indigenous communities. Such flawed structures can therefore be blamed for the poor state of affairs in a situation that can be controlled by an emphasis for health services that cater for the needs of the Aboriginal community.Such systems should also not offer any room to any form of segregation whether as a result of stigma or as a result of forms of oppression by a dominant culture over another that it deems as inf erior. Aboriginal health is indeed an important aspect of health, illness and well-being in Australia that needs consideration. The increasing disparities that are noted between the states of health of Aborigines and non-aborigines provide a sufficient need to worry especially with the differences being added by sociological boundaries that exist in the healthcare system.The changes in social, political and economic attitudes should provide a foundation to improve health services and awareness of the Aboriginal community in order to increase life expectancy, decrease mortality rates at all stages of life, reduce the impact of diseases and enhance the social and emotional well being of members of this and all communities, thereby leading to a unified healthy nation. Works CitedAustralian Bureau of Statistics 2008, The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, 2008, Viewed June 3, 2009, Carson, B, Dunbar, T ; Chenhall, RD 2007, Social Determinant s of Indigenous Health, Allen ; Unwin, Sydney Eckersley, R, Dixon, J, Douglas, RM ; Douglas B 2001, The social origins of health and well-being, Cambridge University Press Grbich, C 2004, Health in Australia: Sociological Concepts and Issues, Pearson Longman, Sydney Germov, J 2004, Second opinion: an introduction to Health Sociology, Oxford, Melbourne Lewis, MJ 2003, The People's Health: Public health in Australia, Greenwood Publishing Group, Sydney Lutschini, M 2005, ‘Engaging with holism in Australian Aboriginal health policy – a review’, Australia / New Zealand Health Policy, vol. 2, no. 5, Department of Public Health, University of Melbourne McGrath, P & Phillips, E 2008 ‘Western Notions of Informed Consent and Indigenous Cultures: Australian Findings at the Interface’, Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 21-31 Thomas, RK 2003, Society and health: sociology for health professionals, Springer Publishers, New York Western, JS & Najma n, JM 2000, A sociology of Australian society, Macmillan Education, Sydney White, K 2002, An Introduction to the Sociology of Health and Illness, Sage Publications: London Willis, E 2004, The Sociological Quest: an introduction to the study of social life (4th Ed), Allen & Unwin, Sydney

The Audit Expectations Gap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Audit Expectations Gap - Essay Example Essentially, the basic issue was not fraud detection by the auditors but the alleged act of in concealment which done the damage. Nevertheless, there is still no conclusive empirical evidence in the literature about whether and how auditing mechanisms influence the performance and the value of the firms; and, about how these mechanisms interact (in a complementary or substitute way) (Bohern and Odegaard, 2003). There are no hard and fast rules for auditing, which can be prescribed for all the countries. These rules can be different for different countries according to their needs and cultural settings. According to ICAEW (2002) with all the contrasts present in the rules and regulations of different countries emphasis is given to generic auditing principles of responsibility, accountability, transparency and fairness. Accountability of the board to shareholders who have the right to receive information on the financial stewardship of their investment and exercise power to reward or remove the directors entrusted to run the company. Transparency of clear information with which meaningful analysis of a company and its actions can be made. The disclosure of financial and operational information and internal processes of management oversight and control enable outsiders to understand the organisation. Fairness that all shareholders are treated equally and have the opportunity for redress for violation of their rights. According to Meigs et al. (1999) this information meets the needs of users of the information-investors. Creditors, managers, and so on-and support many kinds of financial decision performance evaluation and capital allocation, among others. (P.07) In case of Enron as mentioned by Vinten all the above mentioned rules were broken by the governing bodies. The management of the corporation resolutely focused on maximising profits and a 'legal obligation to act in the best interests of its shareholders. By and large, this excluded the corporation to act ethically or socially responsibly'(Slapper and Tombs, 1999). (Shah, 2002) states that some Trans-national corporations make more in sales than the GDPs (Gross Domestic Product) of many countries. In fact, of the 100 hundred wealthiest bodies, 51 percent are owned by corporations. While this can be seen as a success story from some viewpoints, others suggest that these and other large corporations are largely unaccountable for the many social and environmental problems that they leave in their wake, and that their size means that their effects are considerable. The multinational corporations who naturally have vested interests in international development and trade policies (like any group) are able to deploy enormous financial resources in an attempt to get favourable outcomes. The political power that is therefore held by such a small number of people impacts the planet significantly. As a result a few of these corporations make up some of the most influential sources of political and economic

THE YIELD CURVE AND THE ECONOMIC INDICATION Essay

THE YIELD CURVE AND THE ECONOMIC INDICATION - Essay Example The paper goes ahead to examine the yield curve of the USA and the Australia. This paper is divided into two sections. Section a answers the task one and section be answers task two. Section A Introduction The economic analysis in the international world has been witnessing many fluctuations and changes over the years. To access and analyze and even predict these economic fluctuations and changes, economics have been put to task on coming up with the techniques of making economic predictions. Interest rates are factored in as one of the indicators of economic changes globally. They can therefore be for a short term and for long term as well. These interest rates changes give a good prediction on future market trend for instance a three year borrowing of a company which will be influenced by the central bank rates of borrowing and therefore being necessary to analyze the interest rates to see their input into the economy whether positively or negatively. These interest rates basically have a very significant effect on any company or industry economically. The interest rates are never constant and these changes fluctuate from the short term interest rates to the long term interest rates. These changes are well explained in the yield curve. The yield curve is the best indicator of economic activities and it is therefore necessary to have better understanding of this for the benefit of explaining the economic trend. In this paper therefore I will give a critical look at the Yield curve and as well the different types of yield curves and their effect on the economy globally. Yield curve The simplest way to define interest rate is that it is the amount charged on the money borrowed. This comes in form of rates and the maturity amount. The rate is the timely amount given before the actual payment as per the agreement of the borrower and the bank. The maturity amount is the total amount paid after the period given for the repayment of the l oan elapses. The yield curve is the representation of the interest that is representation of the long term and short term interest rates. It’s used to refer to the maturity of borrowings in the banking sector. This curve is plotted by using the interest rates and the maturity period. This curve provides a very crucial basis for the governments to evaluate their economies. It is very basic for the determination of the current and future economic status of a particular economy. It is used for the determining of many financial derivatives like lending rate and mortgages for borrowers. The analysis of the economy of a country will requires the inclusion of the yield curve so as to make it all conclusive. Types of yield curves There are various types of yield curve and it is worth looking at each of these 1. Upward sloping yield curve, This type of a curve is mostly used to show the inflation in the economy. It shows that there is a probability of inflation rising over the followi ng years. It can also

What is Black Dance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What is Black Dance - Essay Example The word ‘dance’ has not generated any controversy, historically and culturally. Everyone likes this word. Turn the page of history of the Blacks, in America; it is daubed in bloodshed and discrimination. It is mysterious and demands protection. Psychologically it seeks emancipation from external and internal emotional stress. It creates a barrier and has latent vulnerabilities. It is hungry for authority, independence and power that have been denied to it since centuries. Even today, African-American artistic community has not come to terms with the definition of Black Dance. Taking into consideration the ground realities, the respectability of Black Dance is little short of cultural apartheid and it smacks of cultural imperialism. It still reflects the stereotyped idea as to what is expected of a black artist or a choreographer. The mind of the viewer of the Black Dance is pre-set to a program, as to what is to be expected and what is not to be expected. The task of finding a final and appropriate definition of Black Dance is only possible for the enlightened group of individuals from the choreographers, dancers and other categories of artists and those with love for the art and critics free from the political and historical bias. Politicians, sociologists and historians should stand clear of this delicate task. Those with a fixed attitude of the mind, and whose mind is flooded with reports of incidents of atrocities against the blacks by the white community will not be able to arrive at a fair assessment as for the merits of the definition of Black Dance. The historical wounds would perhaps never heal even when the Constitution of America guarantees freedom and equal rights for all. But the grim reminders of slavery that begin in the year 1884 and the series of inhuman atrocities committed against them over the decades is impossible to erase from the mind of a student of history of blacks. Keep aside the emotional aspect of the Black Dance for a while and come to its realities and categories as an art form. Hip-hop is a kind of black dance, but it is not the exclusive domain of the black artists. Black Dance generally concentrates in lower positions like going to the ground and other parallel movements, unlike Ballet, where the artists are ever eager to leap into air and mostly work on toe s. But black dances are powerful and exciting; they jump all the time to the rhythm of the drums. They swing their arms and heads, and seem to engage the challenges of life. Black Dance performances do not relate to the suffering and submissive aspect of the black people. Some dances also represent the fierce convictions of those who never barter the freedom of their souls and do not submit to the highhanded attitudes of the whites. They take a challenging stand against the vicissitudes of the community. Their rhythmic movements, to the accompaniment of sound and the musical instruments indicate their inner joy, in trying to pierce the wall of frustration to seek the sunlight of hope. Pearl Primus argues â€Å"Dance is only a part of the whole or the complex living† African dance represents their life, their souls, and their beliefs. Also, â€Å"African dance ranges from the subtlest and most lyric of movements to the most dynamic, from the most sophisticated choreographed p resentations to the simplest.† ( p, 3-11)Black Dance is not restricted to the stage performances in the American cities; it has a profound history, which is

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Australian capital market - Assignment Example This paper will discuss the Australian Capital Market and will also focus on the impact of the global financial crisis on the country. The capital markets have been faced with challenges especially during this period of global financial crisis. The global financial crisis has negatively affected the Australian capital markets and therefore there has been a pressing need for a serious counter action to raise the country to its usual state according to RICS Research (2007). In the last three months, positive change has been recorded in Australia’s money market. More initial public offers by private companies have been noted and indications show that this trend will most likely continue. This has increased the share market performance of the various industries. Indications show that banks are reluctant to provide financing in terms of debt financing. Companies have adapted merger and acquisitions to survive through the recession like Tolhurst Noall which merged with Patersons securities (RICS Research, 2007). This has prevented them from dropping out of the industry. Companies are diverting attention to the ecommerce/digital media companies that’s taking a significant market share from newspapers and magazines. The country has seen a lot of reluctance in debt financing since financial institutions have preferred to fund businesses through equity as opposed to debt. Companies that seek to increase their capital, one viable option has always been to give up a generous portion of their shareholdings. While IPOs were a common way of cashing out investments in the last couple of years, this is no longer the case as many investors have not been able to venture into new businesses due to restrictions on IPO’s according to ResearchWhitePaper (2010). The country has however continued to enjoy a lot in terms of issues. In 2007 for example, Ivanhoe Australia

Industrial revolution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Industrial revolution - Research Paper Example For instance, agriculture enhanced production of wool and cotton, which recorded an increase in year (Moris 90). Regarding the coral mining, it is clear that in the 18th and 19th centuries, coral miners experienced a risky environment and incurred suicidal dangers. Today different mining methods considered safe are in place. Apparently, there are methods like a modernized form of tunnel ventilation, improved underground as well as surface transportation. Transportation determines cost and availability of manufactured goods (Morris 130). If the means of improved communication is not worth it, then products’ price increases. Hence, demands grow. These phenomena caused life to be more expensive. After several inventions, life has become cheaper. In the 18th century, the population grew at a faster rate than before. Birth rates were observed to enhance growth of population (Dickens 39). There were a decline in the death rate and increase in the birth rate, and that ensured faster growth. Again, industry provided a higher amount of wages to individuals. In conclusion, the industrial revolution resulted in a remarkable advancement in not only people’s lifestyle but also better mechanisms were developed to make the overall working easier. Consequently, there was an increase in the general

Plastic Waste Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plastic Waste - Research Paper Example Plastics have only been in circulation in the last 100 years, but its harmful effect on the health and lives of people and marine life is increasingly becoming severe. Globally, it is estimated that more than 500 billion of plastic bags are consumed every year. Currently, in the United States alone, Americans are throwing 100 billion plastic bags every year which is roughly equivalent to 12 million gallons of oil as plastic are made from carbon drawn from petroleum (Mcnamee). Moreover, it is estimated that more than 350 tons of plastic waste are disposed directly into the sea world wide.A single plastic bag takes more than a hundred years before it breaks down. It is durable and very convenient to use and seemingly very harmless. Ironically, the single plastic bag, which was use to put on the classy shoe or bag that we purchase on the mall can cause the lives of several animals. Can we imagine how much damage the billion of plastic bags and other plastic waste can do to marine lives and to our own health? Plastic Waste as Threat to Marine lifeIn 1997 during a Transpacific Yacht Race, between California and Hawaii, Captain Charles Moore accidentally discovered what is now known as the TRASH VORTEX or the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in the Pacific Ocean. The trash vortex is approximately twice the size of Texas and four times the size of Germany in Pacific Ocean which is filled with various floating plastic waste from old toys, golf balls, kayaks, plastic bottles and a lot more. which will not be able to decay in our lifetime. Besides to the floating trash vortex, it is assumed that 70% of the plastic waste sinks into sea bottom. According to Greenpeace, approximately 110 pieces of plastic waste were to be found per square kilometer at the sea bottom. It is calculated that a total of 600,000 tons of plastic waste are found at the bottom of the North Sea alone (Greenpeace). Plastic bags entangle birds which eventually strangled them death as they are unable to free themselves. Sea animals and other marine mammals have mistakenly eaten plastic, which causes their eventual death. According to a study conducted by marine biologist at the University of Kiel in Germany, 93% of the 180 dead birds which has been collected along the German shoreline, has been found to have plastic waste inside their stomachs (Altnau).In Australia, a crocodile named Whitey, which was part of a government wildlife tracking program was found dead and upon autopsy was

Estimate Request and Fact Sheet Form Coursework

Estimate Request and Fact Sheet Form - Coursework Example She is the founder of Global Market Millionaires, a capital ventures firm that invests in ideas of people and assists them in funding. She has served as a columnist in the New York Times with articles focusing on financial planning and investment. She holds a doctoral degree in Financial Management from Harvard University. A number of books exist in the market that addresses financial management. Authors such as Robert Kiyosaki have produced many books sold in the market that address financial management issues. The books in the market handle the topic from a storyline perspective. This book however, approaches it from an educational perspective blending in financial principles and other investor options that are applicable. The book aims at using the financial knowledge and experience of the author in the generation of sound and unique ideas that may propel the reader to an endless climb up the financial ladder Readers can be able to request for review copies of the book and the specified author’s information obtained from the individual imprints. Interested parties are urged to send emails to the appropriated addresses stated below. Unfortunately, emails cannot be forward to the book author nor can the author’s postal or email address be revealed. However, those interested can contact Random House Publishers authors’ and editors through letter or email. Random House Publishers will handle all the queries via their email address at publishers@randomhouse.com [These trim sizes are standard sizes adopted by all printers. The trim size chosen allows for the enrollment of expanded distribution at amazon.com and other e-stores. It will be eligible for bookstores and other online retailers in the expanded distribution channel. This size also gives an allowance of .125† inches that is beyond the final trim size from top, bottom and outer edges for accommodation of the full bleed area.] [Coloured diagrammatic

Nursing Portfolio Essay Example for Free

Nursing Portfolio Essay INTRODUCTION Recently, due to contraception fills, adolescent pregnancy has been decreased, nonetheless, issues of adolescent pregnancy have increased worldwidely, because they are not uncovered superficially. First of all, adolescent pregnancy is an area where intensive nursing care and social and family support are required. In part 1, with regard to teens pregnancy and care, I have collected various artefacts and reviewed them. In this portfolio, I will show how those artifacts help me to learn nursing care with regard to adolescent pregnancy including teenagers, newborn and family. In addition, I will present how I would utilize the artefacts to lead to my future nursing practice successfully. EFFECTS OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY FOR AISHA AND JARAD The Victoria government report has helped me to understand the circumstances of teenagers who have experienced pregnancy and the effects relating to their pregnancy. As a future nurse, it is vital to know the social and environmental background of adolescent pregnancy. In terms of circumstances of pregnant adolescents, it has been found that pregnancy rates are higher among teenagers who include those factors as follows (The Victoria government 2014) . family violence, or sexual abuse or conflict often occurs . A teenager who has low self-esteem, low socioeconomic background . An adolescent who has low maternal education . rural or remote or Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander residents. As the webpage gives the information about complications with teenage pregnancy, I have known that teenagers have greater risks of medical complications during pregnancy and the reasons. The major reasons for their medical complications are that they find out their pregnancy late or do not  know how to approach healthcare service (The Victoria government 2014). Moreover, their nutrition state during pregnancy is improper and hence, they experience premature labour and deteriorating their health condition such as anaemia and emotional distress. Also, the charts from sccanny organization show children born to teenage mother have low birth weight, under 2.5 Kg (Scanny organization 2014). The information has taught me to be prepared the background knowledge of negative effects of teens pregnancy on both their children and themselves before look after an adolescent mother. PRENATAL, POSTNATAL ISSUES FOR DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY IN ADOLESCENT MOTHER AND THEIR FAMILIES As soon as an adolescent has a baby, it can be a burden to her and her family rather than pleasure in normal pregnancy. Before making a nursing plan for an adolescent mother, it is essential to diagnose their depression and anxiety. The YouTube video shows what is their depression and anxiety precisely and succinctly. I have comprehended that their anxiety and depression come from the problems such as parenting difficulties, continuity of study or not and finance to breed their children (PCA 2014). Nurse Review Organizations webpage has provided me with disgnosis and intervention with respect to teen pregnancy (Nursereview 2014). In the future practice, I will educate their family to decrease a stereotype in relation to adolescent pregnancy and emphasize the significance of education for an adolescent mother if she is concerned about dropping her school. Besides, I will refer her to organizations to help her financial difficulties in raising her children and also advise her to take counseling programs with regard to her study. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FAMILY SUPPORT DURING PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH The roles of a nurse include not only caring her patient but also talking to the patients family and educate them. Above all things, in adolescent pregnancy, family support cannot be overemphasized because a teen mother is not prepared to give birth and breed. This video gives very useful tips to  persuade their family that might be upset or frustrated due to their daugthers or girl friends pregnancy in order to help the teen mother as highlighting how the teen mother feels scared and worried about her pregnancy (999advicechannel 2011). As I learned in the video, I will explain the necessity of family support and ask the family to help their adolescent mother actively in the real practice. The cooperation among the adolescent mother, family and nurse will bring about successful outcomes in the perspective of mental and physical health of the teen mother and her child. Moreover, advocatesforyouth website has offered what organization takes the initiatives and programmes for teens pregnancy in each country and the world (Graczkyk 2008). Therefore, I will recommend the programmes or organisations to a teen mother patient who does not have any family or partner that can support her in the future practice. THE NURSES ROLE IN RELATION TO CARING FOR AN ADOLESCENT MOTHER DURING PREGNANCY AND AFTERBIRTH A more anxious and depressed teenager mother than an adult mother needs the delicate and attentive care of a nurse (Graczkyk 2008). Therefore, the role of nurse includes mothering teenagers, educating them and their family as well as conducting professional nursing practice for them (Grazkyk 2008). Essentialbaby.com websites offers Australian vaccination schedule for new born. I will memorize the immunization schedules and also provide them to a teen mother under the hospital regulation (Baby Health 2014). In addition, I will educate adolescent mothers about the significance of immunization so that they cannot miss the proper time for immunization of their children. Also, I will provide holistic education about how to care a new born baby to a teenager mother and father as I have seen the YouTube video. I will be pleased to demonstrate the ways how to feed, bathe and handle a newborn baby, otherwise, I will show the education video for teenage mothers and fathers. Moreover, I will tell them if there is any urgent situation regarding their baby, notify it to me or other nurses (InfirmaryHealth 2013). CONCLUSION Through this activity, I have become more confident and competent with respect to caring an adolescent mother. I have acknowledged that caring a teen mother is required a more considerate, and professional nursing mind that can consider their situation, anxiety and depression since a teen is not expected to be a mother as early as they can. I will facilitate the collaborative atmosphere among a teen mother, her family and me to create better outcomes of care in the health of the teen mother and the baby. Furthermore, I will provide explicit education for an adolescent mother and her family and guide them to appropriate programs and organization to help them. I am sure that I will play a major role as a nurse to care a teenager mother professionally and support them so as to prevent worse outcomes such as deterioration of their health and social problems. REFERENCES 999Advicechannel. (2011). _Teen pregnancy and support_. Retrieved from BabyHealth. (2014). _Australian vaccination schedule_. Retrieved from http://www.essentialbaby.com.au/baby/baby-health/australian-vaccination-schedule-20081110-5l9w.html Graczyk. A. (2008). _Maternal mortality an overlooked crisis_. Retrieved from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/publications-a-z/436-adolescent-maternal-mortality-an-overlooked-crisis Infirmary Health. (2013). _Caring for your newborn baby_. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLnVNIx2nkw Nurse Review . (2014_). The pregnant adolescent_. Retrieved from PCA (2014). _The Effects of Teen Pregnancy PSA_. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggSjURqR66I Scanny Organisation (2014). _Teen pregnancy_. Retrieved from http://www.scaany.org/documents/teen_pregnancy_dec08.pdf. The Victoria Government. (2014). _Teenage pregnancy_. Retrieved from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Teenage_pregnancy?open

The Integration of Ole Miss Essay Example for Free

The Integration of Ole Miss Essay James Meredith’s successful campaign to gain admission to the University of Mississippi, ‘Ole Miss’, and desegregate education in the state most resistant to integration of educational institutions has become a crucial epitome in the civil rights movement. The integration of Ole Miss altered Mississippi’s politics and contributed to a cultural shift in the region, as well as rejuvenated local civil rights activists and those in neighboring states. The historic confrontation among James Meredith and the University of Mississippi gives perspective on the category of African-Americans in the U.   S. civilization during the 20th century; breaking down the multi-layered notions of the combat of Ole Miss gives insight on the social and political forces that identified and cooperated with the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. On September 30, 1962, riots evolved on the campus of the University of Mississippi in Oxford where residents, perspective students, and committed segregationists joined to protest the enrollment and placement of James Meredith, African-American Air Force veteran attempting to integrate the all-white school. Despite the presence of more than 120 federal marshals who were on site to protect Meredith from danger, â€Å"the crowd turned violent after nightfall, and authorities struggled to maintain order†. Once the disappeared the next morning, two citizens were dead and an abundant amount were reportedly injured. For Meredith, this was a step into the door for a process that began no more than two years earlier when he challenged the school, suspecting that he was denied enrollment on the background of ethnicity. However, a lower court partnered with the University of Mississippi, the U. S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit established a decision in June 1962 which ordered the school to accept Meredith in the fall of 1962, ensuring an enormous conflict between the federal government and Mississippis state government anti-integration. After spending the night of September 30 with federal protection, Meredith was permitted to register for courses the morning after, and then became the first African-American to graduate from Ole Miss in August 1963. During this time period there were several events occurring that were related to the Civil Rights Movement. For example, years prior, in 1955-1957 the Montgomery Bus Boycott took place. With this bus boycott Rosa Park ignites a 381-day boycott organized by Martin Luther King Jr. The Freedom Riders of 1961 who opposed to segregation took buses to the South to protest the segregation of bus stations; many were greeted with riots and beatings by segregationist. The â€Å"Letter from the Birmingham Jail† was another major event throughout this time of the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King wrote this letter in response to Caucasian ministers who urged him to stop causing disturbances and articulates his nonviolent movement/resistance to wrongs of American society. Lastly, the murder of Medgar Evers (head of Mississippi NAACP), who was shot outside of his home on the exact night that President Kennedy addressed the nation on the notion of race. These key events related to the Integration of Ole Miss significantly because each event desired to integrate and with nonviolence. The civil rights movement, which increased in size during WWII because of the NAACP’s membership growing from 50,000 to 500,000 obtained momentum in 1954 with the Supreme Court Case of Brown v. Board of Education. The result of this case was the Court ruling that segregation of schools was deemed unconstitutional. By 1956 Kentucky, Oklahoma, Missouri, Maryland and Delaware had progressed to desegregate their schools, but for Southern Caucasians white supremacy was intensely set in cultural morals and social conferences, integration was not a choice. Many white supremacists referenced anti-integration as the Second Reconstruction. This would give whites an extra opportunity to control African-Americans. In Mississippi officials reacted with a design to â€Å"balance† schools, the government produced the State Sovereignty Commission, which protected the sovereignty of Mississippi and enforce racial segregation in the public eye. Politics were an unjust ideology during the 20th century. Many African-Americans gave up on the government being on their side to gain equal rights and justice. However, there were prominent political figures throughout the Civil Rights Movement who assisted African-Americans in gaining bits of equality. Attorney General, Robert F. Kennedy stated: it is fundamental in our system that there be respect for the law and compliance with all the laws – not just those which we happen to agree. The course which Governor Barnett is following is, therefore, incompatible with the principles upon which the Union is based. James Meredith was escorted onto and off campus by the National Guard, but that was not enough. Robert and John Kennedy both made historical speeches in order to grant equality and security to the African-American civilization. On the contrary, Governor Barnett upheld his beliefs as a white supremacist and aimed so deeply to maintain segregation in the state of Mississippi. Barnett broadcasted through television and radio on September 13, 1962 to express his profound ideas of white domination. He states: I have made my position in this matter crystal clear. I have said in every county in Mississippi that no school in our state will be integrated while I am your Governor. I shall do everything in my power to prevent integration in our schools. I assure you that the schools will not be closed if this can possibly be avoided, but they will not be integrated if I can prevent it. As your Governor and Chief Executive of the sovereign State of Mississippi, I now call on every public official and every private citizen of our great state to join me. It is disturbing to know that a leader of a Union would work so immensely to disagree with everything the union stands for. Governor Barnett was willing to go against the political ideologies of the Constitution in order to maintain segregation in the Mississippi. In conclusion, The Integration of Ole Miss is sadly more â€Å"celebrated† than remembered. The University of Mississippi hung signs that read â€Å"Opening the Closed Society† and â€Å"50 Years of Courage†, but forget that before the state could celebrate integration they enforced over 100 years of segregation. Its almost if the university is celebrating emancipation without tackling its sin first. In order for future generations to understand what the â€Å"closed society† was like we must break down the true notions of the social and political forces that cooperated with the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation

Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation 1. INTRODUCTION Surfactants are surface active compound that reduce the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants are organic compound that contain both hydrophobic (head part of the surfactant) and hydrophilic (tail part of the surfactant) moieties. Thus surfactant contains both water insoluble i.e. water repellent group as well as water soluble i.e. water loving group. Biosurfactants are also surface active compound like chemical surfactants but unlike the chemical surfactant, biosurfactant are synthesized by microbes like bacteria, fungi and yeast. Biosurfactants comprise the properties of dropping surface tension, stabilizing emulsions, promoting foaming and are usually non-toxic and biodegradable. Recently interest in biosurfactant has increased because of its diversity, flexibility in operation, and more eco-friendly then chemical surfactant (BS Saharan et al., 2011; Eduardo J. gudiËÅ"na et al., 2011). Biochemical processes of oil degradation carried out by microbes involves several type of enzymatic reactions driven by oxygenase, dehydrogenase and hydroxylase (Hamamura N et al., 2008). These enzymes cause aliphatic and aromatic hydroxidation, oxidative deamination, hydrolysis and other biochemical transformation of original oil substance leading to formation of large number of intermediate degradation products. However, a major limitation of microbial degradation of crude oil is its hyydrophobicity. Biosurfactant produced by oil degrading bacteria facilitate the uptake of crude oil hydrocarbons by bacterial cells and also have low toxicity and high biodegradability (Batista SB et al., 2006). So, crude oil degrading bacteria with the ability to produce biosurfactant is widely recommended for fast degradation of crude oil. (Kumar M et al., 2006). Furthermore possibility of their production on large scale, selectivity, performance under intense conditions and their future applications in environmental fortification also these have been increasingly attracting the attention of the scientific and industrial community. These molecules have a potential to be used in a variety of industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, humectants, food preservative and detergents (BS Saharan et al., 2011). But the production of biosurfactant on industry level is still challenge because of using high costly synthetic media for microbial growth. Biosurfactants are classified on the basis of diversity in their structure and their microbial origin. They contain a hydrophilic group, that contain an acid, peptide cations, or anions, mono-, di- or polysaccharides and a hydrophobic group of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon chains or fatty acids. Biosurfactants produced by a variety of microorganisms mainly bacteria, fungi and yeasts are diverse in chemical composition and their nature and the amount depend on the type of microbes producing a particular biosurfactant. 1.1 Classification of Biosurfactant: Biosurfactants are classified in to two major group one is low molecular weight surface active agent call biosurfactant and high molecular weight substance called bio-emulsifier that is especially used as enhancement of emulsification of hydrocarbon. Further these two major group is divided in to six major group known as glycolipids, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins-lipopeptides, phospholipids, hydroxylated and cross linked fatty acids. (a) Glycolipids: Mostly biosurfactants are glycolipds. They are lipids with a carbohydrate attached. The connection is by means of either an ether or ester group. Among the glycolipids, the best known are rhamnolipids sophorolipids and trehalolipids. Fig 1: Glycolipid (b) Rhamnolipids: Rhamnolipids is a group of biosurfactant that studied extensively. These are produced by many species of Pseudomonas and have tremendous antimicrobial activity against several common microorganisms, which is an essential property of all cosmetics due to the daily contamination of the product by the human touch (Lourith N et al., 2009). Rhamnolipids is a type of glycolipid biosurfactant that contain either a one or two molecule of ÃŽ ²-hydroxydecanoic acid. In 1999 the structure of rhamnolipid produced by P. aeruginosa on mannitol and nepthalene by liquid chromotography was compared. And it was found that for mannitol the most common rhamnolipid contained two rhamnoes and two 3-hydroxydecaonic acid and whereas rhamnolipid produced by nepthalene contained two rhamnoes and one 3-hydroxydecaonic acid. Fig 2: Structure of mono and di rhamnolipid (c) Trehalolipids: It is another type of glycolipids that containing trehalose hydrophobic moieties. Such type of biosurfactant structure is diverse in hydrophobic moieties, varying from short fatty acid to long fatty acid chain. In general it is observed that the bacteria showing Gram’s positive produces Trehalolipids biosurfactant (Anderson RJ et al, 1983). Fig 3: Structure of Trehalose lipid (d) Sophorolipids: Such glycolipids are synthesized by yeast; these are the complex mixture of both free acid and lactone form. The acidic SL contain fatty acid as tail where as SL lactonic are formed by the esterification between carboxylic end of the fatty acid and 4† of the sophorose end. Generally lactonic SL has better surface tension lowering property whereas the acidic SL have better potential to form foam and solubility properties (Nuneza A. et al., 2003). Fig 4: Structure of Sophorolipid lactonized and acid Form. 1.2 Lipopeptides and lipoproteins: Lipopeptide biosurfactants are cyclic compounds and they are mostly isolated from Bacillus and Pseudomonas type bacteria Lipopeptides mainly consist of hydrophilic peptides, generally they consist 7 and 10 amino acids long, linked to a hydrophobic fatty acid structure. Bacillus cyclic lipopeptides consist of three major groups known as the surfactin, iturin and fengycin families. Surfactin is the most commonly studied and it contains 7 amino acid cyclic sequences connected to a C13–C16 fatty acid (Kakinuma A. et al.,1969). Fig 5: Structure of aminolipopetide Fig 6: Structure of cyclic aminolipopetide 1.3 Polymeric Biosurfactants: Polymeric biosurfactant are high weight molecular biopolymers which consist polysaccharides, proteins, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins or mixture of theses biopolymers. A wide variety of microbes produces polymer biosurfactant. Polymer biosurfactant exhibits properties like high viscosity, tensile strength, and resistance to shear. The following are example of different type of polymeric biosurfactant. 1.4 Advantages and Uses of Biosurfactant: The unique properties of biosurfactant (Microbial Surface Active Agents) such as low toxicity, relative ease of preparation and widespread applicability, make it different from chemical synthetic surfactant and now it has become recently an important product of biotechnology for industrial and medical applications and they allow to replacement of chemical synthetic surfactant. They can be used as emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers, wetting agents, spreading agents, foaming agents, functional food ingredients and detergents in various industrial sectors such as, Petroleum and Petrochemicals, Organic Chemicals, Foods and Beverages, Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals, Mining and Metallurgy, Agrochemicals and Fertilizers, Environmental Control and Management, and many others. Table 1. Classification of biosurfactants and their use in remediation of heavy metal and hydrocarbon contaminated sites. (Magdalena Pacwa-PÅ‚ociniczak et al., 2011) Stabilization of the hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Dispersion of limestone in water Stabilization of hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Alasan Acinetobacter radioresistens KA-53 Biodispersan Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2 Liposan Candida lipolytica Mannoprotein Saccharomyces cerevisiae There are many advantages of biosurfactant as compare to chemically synthesized surfactants. Some of those are: Biodegradability: Easy to biodegradable as compare to the chemical surfactant (Kosari N, 1992). Low toxicity Biocompatibility and digestibility, that allows their application in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food seasonings. Easily availability of raw material: The raw material need for production of biosurfactant are easily available, biosurfactant producing microorganism can be isolated from the industrial waste like oil contaminated soil, petrol pump spilled, and also can be isolated from municipal waste. Use in environmental control: Biosurfactants can be efficiently used in handling industrial emulsions, control of oil spills, biodegradation and lowering the toxicity of industrial discharges and in bioremediation of polluted soil. Specificity in their action, since biosurfactant has specific organic functional group and often specific in their action. This is particularly used in lowering the toxicity of the pollutant, used in enhancing the emulsification property, used as raw material in cosmetic, medicinal and foodstuff applications. 1.5 Crude oil spills The crude oil spills are one of the main environmental pollutants. Their abundance and persistence in several polluted environmental areas have been reported (Mohammed M. A., 2004). Oil spillage may be caused by natural disasters like earthquakes in the sea surface or due to accidental leaks during exploration, refining, storage and transportation. The causes can be numerous but the consequences are the same. In case of crude oil, the different types such as heavy or light crude oil can affect the clean-up procedures. Crude oil spreads very rapidly on the sea surface and after a short period of time the thickness of the oil film can be at least 1mm. It is therefore necessary to prevent the spreading to reach the shoreline. Once it reaches the shoreline, it contaminates the soil and cause a great damage to the soil ecosystem as well. Some of the largest oil spills that have taken place all over the world are at Iran, Iraq, Persian Gulf, Uzbekistan, Kuwait, United States, Gulf of Mexico, Pakistan and even in India. The most recent oil spill in India is the spill of ONGC Trunk oil pipeline burst, at Uran, Mumbai on 21st January 2011. Around 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled in Mumbai coast that spread around 4 sq km area. Many such disasters reported one seeping oil from a sinking ship. In August 2010, oil spill at Gopalpur beach Orissa in April 2010 causing the death of many Ridley turtles that breed there during that period. It hence becomes a necessity to clean up this oil in order to save the marine life. Clean-up and recovery of hydrocarbons from an oil spill is difficult and the strategies for cleaning up an oil spill are greatly affected by a variety of factors such as the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water body, and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. A number of approaches an d technologies have been developed for spreading of oil spills in marine shorelines and freshwater environments. Many mechanical and chemical methods can be applied to clean-up the spills (Zhu et al., 2001). Fig 7: Crude oil spill 1.6 Methods applied in cleaning of oil spills 1.6.1 Physical methods Booms. Skimmers. Manual removal (Wiping). Mechanical removal. Washing. Sediment relocation or Surface washing. Tilling. In-situ burning 1.6.2 Chemical methods Dispersants. Demulsifies. Solidifiers. Surface film chemicals. Although various conventional cleaning methods such as physical methods like the first response selection, rarely achieve complete cleanup of oil spills. According to the Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress, 1991), current mechanical methods typically recover no more than 10-15 percent of the oil after a major spill. Chemical methods are faster in action but they are toxic to the biota present in the spill environment. Bio-surfactants can be used for cleaning of crude oil spillage. 1.7 Hydrocarbons of Crude oil: Oils are further categorized into three broad groups, according to their molecular weight. General statements can be made for each of the three categories namely light weight, medium weight, and heavy weight components (Scholz et al., 1999). Crude oils are composed of various combinations of these three categories with the following general characteristics. 1.7.1 Light Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C1 to C10 which are smaller molecules with few numbers of atoms. They are characterized by high volatility, readily dissolvable and evaporate and leave little or no residue because of their short residence time. Many of these components (e.g., benzene, and toluene) are thought to be more bioavailable to animals by primary exposure route (respiratory system). Being highly flammable and readily inhaled, and therefore are of concern for human health and safety. 1.7.2 Medium Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C11 to C22 which have complex molecules. It has low rate of evaporation and dissolves very slowly that take several days with some residue remaining. Not as bioavailable as lower weight components, it is less likely to affect aquatic animals. Its primary exposure route is respiratory system and gets readily absorbed through skin. 1.7.3 Heavy Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms more than C23. It has the longest residence time with very little loss due to evaporation or dissolution. It can cause chronic effect through smothering as residue in the water column and sediments (tarballs, etc). Its primary exposure route is direct topical contact. Some heavy weight components contain carcinogens that are absorbed through the skin. Its risk of exposure is increased due to long residence time, probability of contact, and adsorption property of the oil components. Table 2: List of oil spill incidents since 2010 1.8 Oil Spills and Their Effects: Recently on 21st January 2011, ONGC trunk oil pipeline burst at Uran, Mumbai. About 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled and spread around 4 sq km area. On 7th August, 2010 a foreign cargo ship, collided with another vessel about 10 km off Mumbai harbor, that spilled the oil in spite of the hectic effect made by Navy and Coast Guard to contain the leak, around 700 tons of fuel oil and 28 tons of diesel oil was spilled. Thousands of eggs of the endangered Olive Ridley Turtles on the beach adjoining river Rushikulya in Ganjam district have failed to hatch this year because of the recent 924 tons of furnace oil spill at a nearby port. Rushikulya Sea turtle protection committee have found that the hatching of the eggs, which ended last week, have gone down by 40 to 50 percent this year as the eggs, numbering thousands, got spoiled after the leaked oil soaked the nesting site on the beach. A number of incidents have been reported happening every year. Some of the oil spill incidents ar e listed in the Table 2. Oil spills kill wildlife and damage the ecosystem that can last for generations by forcing changes in reproduction and compromising complex food webs. Oil spill damage to the waterways of birds and animals, destroys the animal immune systems, interrupt breeding and fouling of breeding grounds. Besides, they thin bird and turtle egg shells and also damage the fish larvae, causing deformities. They cause damage to sea grass beds and other shelter/feeding areas, tainting of algae, which perform a vital role in waterway ecosystems. Due to oil spill on soil the insects and worms living in it are killed due to hydrocarbon toxicity, lack of oxygen supply and it reduce the pH of the soil. This affects the fertility of soil and its productivity in terms of the growth of plants (Wokocha G.A., 2011). As a result soil eco system is getting disturbed and it effects the plant growth. Soil oil also contaminates ground water and it causes illness to the human beings and animals when consumed.

Labor Supply Responses to Taxes and Transfer Payments Essay -- America

A good understanding of labor supply reactions to tax and transfer policies is necessary for achieving related policy goals. Income support programs intend to alleviate poverty and create a more equitable society. However, the reaction of the labor supply can derail the intended results and need to be carefully evaluated for effective policy. Economic theory suggests that as taxes and transfer payments increase, the amount of hours and/or number of employees will decrease (Borjas 2005). The exception is transfer payments with work requirements, where the labor supply moves in the same direction as benefits. In the labor market, individuals have two basic choices: how many hours to work (intensive), and whether or not to work at all (extensive). If the labor supply has largely intensive reactions, certain types of programs, such as food stamps, are most effective, when EITC type programs are more effective for extensive reactions. Government tax and transfer policies affect the labor supply because when the real wage changes the labor supply reacts. This paper will look at the response of the U.S. labor supply to changes in taxes and transfer payments. It will determine if the response is concentrated towards intensive or extensive margins and observe the direction and magnitude of the changes. Understanding labor supply responses is crucial for governments desiring to reach intended policy goals. Labor market behavior can have significant long run effects on potential output. According to the Congressional Budget Office, the size and quality of the labor force, capital stock, and the efficiency of production, determine a country’s potential output. When policies influence relevant factors, such as the size of the labor force, the... ...e to participate at a paid wage lower than they would typically require. More people working expands the tax base while reducing the amount of transferred income. The government is able to collect more revenue and still provide a guaranteed income level. (Dickert et al.1995; Browning 1995). EITC type programs can help the government achieve its objectives with minimal negative effects to the economy. Not all labor markets have identical sizes or types of responses to government decisions. The direction and magnitude of each response will inform policy makers about optimal decisions. Section II of this paper reviews the empirical literature on tax and transfer policies and the labor market. Section III discusses the methodology. Section IV summarizes the results of this study. Section V presents the conclusion as well as identifies areas for further research.

Moral Sentiments and Determinism Essay -- Philosophy Philosophical Pap

ABSTRACT: P. F. Strawson’s essay "Freedom and Resentment" was a landmark in the study of determinism, free-will, and morality. It contributed a much-needed correction to the problem of overintellectualization as found in twentieth-century compatibilist literature. Although most of the central claims in Strawson’s essay are important and true, it fails to fill the lacuna in the analysis, discussion and proposals of traditional compatibilism. The reasons may be summarized as follows. The web of moral demands, feelings and participant attitudes comprises a set of facts within human social life which must be investigated in order to understand the relation (or lack thereof) between determinism and morality. If the facts themselves fill the gap, then it must be some adequate and coherent understanding of them. According to Strawson, the incompatibilist has an understandable dissatisfaction with his opponent’s account because, among other things, the latter fails to de al with the condition of desert and of the justice of moral condemnation and punishment. However, the theory of "Freedom and Resentment" fails equally on this point. What is now needed is a combination of factual study with ethical inquiry. The former would draw on the results of social psychology, the psychology of moral development, the social sciences of morals, and (philosophical) moral psychology. I In the light of a well-known distinction between participant moral attitudes and objective ones, the traditional issue of free will and morality is rephrased, in P.F.Strawson’s ‘Freedom and Resentment’ (henceforth FR), as follows: Could, or should, determinism lead us always to look on everyone exclusively in the objective way? The negative answer is defended and ... ...egal punishment, and the sociology and anthropology of morality. As far as the latter is concerned, that would amount to a sort of revival of the late l9th Century and early 20th Century studies in the social sciences of morals. In an age of multidisciplinary studies such as ours, FR may retrospectively be looked on by present-day students of our philosophical problem as containing an ‘ahead-of-its-time’ invitation, and an especially attractive one, for the philosopher to embark on such a multidisciplinary enterprise. References Honderich, T. (Ed.), Essays on Freedom of Action, Routledge and Kegan Paul, l973. Schlick, M., Problems of Ethics , Dover Publications, N.York, l939. Strawson, P.F., ‘Freedom and Resentment’ in Freedom and Resentment and other Essays, Methuen, l974 Skepticism and Naturalism: some varieties, Columbia University Press, l985.

The effect gases derived from fossil fuel combustion have on the Biosph

The year is 2985; we begin with the life of Elizabeth Ferguson. Elizabeth wakes up and begins her day; she took off her stationary nighttime breathing apparatus and attached her portable apparatus and fills a spare tank to hold her oxygen ration for the day. She begins her morning jog, marveling in the ambrosial sight of the vivid, swirling yellow sky, the sky was miraculously clear today and she could fathom the faint blue haze that she had once seen in her childhood â€Å"a classic sign of pollution† these words rang out in her mind as clearly as bells chime, she immediately reminisced upon her many professors who had drilled this fact into her mind ever since she could remember. Her mother’s tales were leagues apart from the professor’s lessons, her mother often conveyed the blue skies of her childhood, the lack of swarms of flying matter too small to be distinguished by the human eye but dense enough to be seen as a thick mist, she also spoke of the time in w hich the breathing apparatuses that were issued to us were unneeded as you could breathe the air without a mask without adverse effects. Elizabeth often shared her mother’s stories with her fellow peers in class. These stories were swiftly recanted by her professors as simply old wives tales. Later, she returned home after the jog and began the sanitation process, removing the particulate matter that had created a fine covering of dust over her skin, she knows that this is one of the most important processes and that if it is not completed swiftly she will be bedridden with many melanomas from the toxic film. After her sanitization she adorns herself in the coverings that will protect her from the rain that is forecasted for today. Rain is one of the most dangerous substances ... ...hat will take the Earth millions of years to filter. These gases, all released through natural tectonic and chemical reactions within and on the surface of the Earth Carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide both released through volcanoes and particulate matter through the burning of matter. These gases, while necessary to sustain the biospheres homeostatic state are being released into the biosphere at a far greater rate than the earth can sustain the symbiotic recycling methods that have been built up since the earth’s formation 4.7 ±.1 billion years ago via the combustion of fossil fuels. If our behavior as energy consumers on Earth, our only home, the only home for not only us but the entire animal kingdom will become a desolate, uninhabitable rock floating drearily throughout space a shadow of its past glory. Would you want your children to live in Elizabeth’s world?

History Cxc Adjustments to Emancipation

Adjustments to Emancipation| Coming of the Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Africans | Akia Selver| TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 1 2. Bakcground†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 2 3. Africans†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 3 4. Europeans†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 5. Madeirans†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 6. East Indians†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 7. Contracts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 8. Effects†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 9. Bibliography †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page INTRODUCTION This project is based on the topic Adjustments to Emancipation from 1838 – 1876. It focuses on the Coming of the Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Africans into the Caribbean. Information is provided about their reasons for migration, working conditions and their effects on the Caribbean. Slavery was the initial labour system used by Europeans on their plantations in the Caribbean. It was implemented in the 1600s, the Europeans forcefully took people from the African continent to the Caribbean on various trips. The path in which the slaves were carried between Africa and the Caribbean is now known to historians as the triangular trade. These Africans and those from the African lineage became slaves on the plantations where they were not seen as humans and were treated as animals or property. After the freedom of the enslaved population on the plantations in the 1830s, the planters were faced with irregularity of labour on the estates. This was because many of the slaves had left the plantation to go start a new life. In addition, the remaining population had cultivated land of their own; often when it was harvest time instead of harvesting the crops on the estates, the freed people would harvest their own crops which posed a problem to the planters. As a result of this major problem, planters now had to develop new strategies to regulate the labour force on the estates. A major remedy to the inconsistency of the labour on the estates was the importation of indentured workers. AFRICANS Since Britain had abolished the slave trade, her warships had patrolled the seas looking for foreign boats carrying slaves. Most of the captures they were of Brazilian and Cuban ships. When they were released they were usually taken to two British colonies, St Helena or Sierrre Leone. both colonies were in danger of being overcrowded so the British government was willing to encourage the liberated Africans to emigrate to the Caribbean. Most of the imported were free slaves, most notably of the Jamaican Maroons deputed in 1796. After 1841 most liberated Africans were brought to the Caribbean either as soon as they were taken from a slave ship or after a short time on St Helena. hese Africans were unused to European ways and had not been seasoned to plantation labour. They usually left the plantations as soon as they could and settled as squatters in the interiors. The scheme lasted from 1841 to about 1862. It was very popular at first but declined after 1850 for two reasons. Firstly the private ships that were chartered at the beginning to carry the emigrants from African made the Africans think about slav ery all over again. secondly the agents in west Africa undoubtedly lured the Africans with false promises of money and land. As soon as the news leaked back it was hard to attract more Africans. A total of 36000 immigrants arrived. COUNTRY| # of Immigrants| British Guiana| 14000| Jamaica| 10000| Trinidad| 8000| The rest arrived in Grenada, St Vincent, St Lucia and St Kitts. EUROPEANS Jamaica was the main country to import European labour. This was done to raise the white population and at the same time provide plantation labour. This experiment was a failure. From 1834 to 1838, thousands of Scots and Irish and a few hundred Germans came to Jamaica. Most died due to tropical diseases as they lacked immunity to them. Others refused to work because of expected duties and found out that it was the work of blacks. They sought other employment or asked to be repatriated. In 1841 the Jamaican government made another attempt and imported more whites from Britain. After more deaths and requests to be sent home, the government finally realized that plantation labour from Northern Europe was a hopeless prospect. A total of 200 immigrants arrived in St. Kitts. MADEIRANS In the 1830s Planters in Trinidad and Guyana turned to Madeira, the Portuguese colony in the Atlantic where sugar was the main crop. The first 125 Madeiran cane workers come to Trinidad in 1834, through Mr. Seale, an English merchant. 559 landed in Guyana the following year. Private importations of Madeiran began in 1835 but were suspended in 1839 while the British government examined the conduct of the schemes. Maideiran immigration was re-opened on an official basis in 1841 and large numbers went to British Guiana. The numbers decreased after 1846. In 1848 the scheme was suspended again. It was resumed in 1850, but was not popular. By 1856 Portuguese Madeirans controlled nearly all the retailing businesses in Guyana and St Vincent. The immigration period lasted from 1835 to 1882. The scheme was very irregular, the death rate was of the new arrivals were high and most of them went into trading as soon as their contracts ended. In addition, the Madeiran Government objected to the scheme, since so many of its citizens were leaving, and implemented measures making it difficult for their recruitment.. In all 36,000 came. COUNTRY| # of Immigrants| British Guiana| 30,000| Antigua| 2,000| Trinidad| 1,000| Jamaica| 100| The rest were dispersed among Grenada, ST Vincent, ST Kitts and Nevis. In Madeira, workers were paid only one third of what they could earn in the islands per day, so they were attracted by the higher wages being offered in the Caribbean, especially British Guiana. MALTESE Before 1840 a small number of Maltese came to the British West Indies, mainly British Guiana and Grenada. The Maltese were not satisfied with the conditions and asked to be return home. Malta was incapable of providing enough immigrants to solve the labour problem on West Indian sugar estates. CHINESE In 1802 the first governor off Trinidad received permission to import Chinese laborers from Malay. Many Chinese were already moving to places like Malaya in South-east Asia where European plantations and trading posts were growing fast. They were easily persuaded to move and acquire indentures in Trinidad with the promise of small plots of land of after five years. In 1806, 162 Chinese immigrants landed in Trinidad. At their own request 61 returned in 1807. After seven years only 30 of the original immigrants lived in Trinidad and none of them worked on a plantation. In 1844 British Guiana tried to persuade Chinese who had previously emigrated to Malacca, Singapore and Penang. However, they were unwilling and were happy where they were. In 1852 large-scale Chinese immigration began from Macao. The immigrants were convicts or prisoners of war and included no women, which had unhappy consequences for the scheme in British Guiana. In 1859 a family immigration scheme was started. An agent was sent from British Guiana in 1860 to Canton to accumulated Chinese families from rural areas of Fukien and Kwangtung. Trinidad joined the scheme in 1864 and shared the cost of agency. The scheme was more successful but the agents practiced some deception, they did not inform the Chinese of the work they were going to do and made false promises about repatriation. The Chinese recruits were small farmers and market gardener not plantation labourers. Reason for migration: Most hoped for better living as shopkeepers or petty traders. They were promised small plots of land after 5 years. COUNTRY| # of Immigrants| British Guiana| 12000| Jamaica| 5000| Trinidad| 2500| EAST INDIANS In 1836 John Gladstone , a Guyanese plantation owner, applied to the Secretary of State for the Colonies for permission to import Indian labourers. In 1838, 396 arrived and the great flood of Indian immigration begun. The Caribbean seemed attractive with high wages, shelter, medical care and a chance to find new occupations besides agriculture. It was immediately proclaimed a success. However, their fate was terrible. Investigations by the Anti-Slavery Society found evidence of fluffing and other forms of punishment. 9 of the Indians on the Gladstone estates died before their time of indenture was over. In July 1838 the Indian government suspended emigration to the West Indies while an investigation of the conditions in British Guiana was carried out by the Commission of Enquiry. In 1844 immigration officially resumed and lasted until 1917. The planters’ demand from East Immigrant labour was very strong in the 1840s. In British Guiana the government spent ? 50,000 a year on immigration. Trinidad and Jamaica were also importing Indians on a large scale. Indians were easily recruited as India was a British colony. British ships and trading costs were already there and the British government could easily provide British officials to supervise the scheme. Planters were satisfied with the Indians because they were hard-working, accustomed to tropical agriculture and re-indentured themselves. Up to 1848 the Indian immigrants, known as ‘coolies’, were drawn from the poor on the streets of the cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. These cities always remained the ports of embarkation. After 1848 they were drawn from the provinces of Agra-Oudh and Buhar which always suffered terribly. Many of these emigrants were peasant farmers. In 1848, after giving loans to the governments of British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica, she wanted especially in British Guiana where the government much stricter supervision over immigration. Britain was spending ? 50 000 per year n immigration, was also allowing Indian immigrants to go to non- British colonies, the French, Dutch and Danish. In these territories it was not possible to oversee the treatment of put towards immigration, it was decided in 1876 to Trinidad and Jamaica were also importing Indians stop the transportation of Indians into all non- on a large scale, but the Jamaican government was British colonies except Surina m, Guadeloupe and Martinique. In 1886 Guadeloupe and Martinique British Guiana and Trinidad, were also banned, and only Surinam continued importing Indians until 1917. The scheme may seem successful but in many ways it did not live up to expectations. It deprived human beings of freedom for long periods of time, there was great mortality and suffering for the immigrants and grave social problems were caused in West Indian territories. By 1917, 416,000 East Indian immigrants had entered the British West Indies. COUNTRY| # of Immigrants| British Guiana| 239,000| Trinidad| 134,00| Jamaica| 33,000| St Lucia| 4,000| Grenada| 3,000| St Vincent| 2,700| St Kitts| 300| Reasons for Migration: Many craftsmen had lost their jobs due to competition from mechanized factories and mills of England. * India was becoming overpopulated and there was not enough land to divide among the younger generation. * Wages in India had fallen to 1/2d per day and there was a series of famine during the period 1857-1877 that led to an increase in food prices. * Those escaping the police and the caste system were also willing to migrate. CONTRACTS At first black West Indian labour ers moved from one island to another without contracts. When planters started paying the cost of the passage they insisted on contracts. However, as these contracts were signed on arrival, there was little a planter could do if the terms were refused. The British government insisted that all indentured contracts had to state clearly the length of service, the number of hours to be worked each day, rates of pay and the conditions for a return passage. For most of the 1840s, the British government ship, single men, single women, and married would only permit contracts signed on arrival in couples were all berthed separately. It was very rare government gave way to planters and permitted for a voyage to be completed without loss of life. Contracts to be signed at the port of embarkation. The average mortality rate on board was about This was better from the planters’ point of view, but 4 per cent until the 1850s, when it went as high as 17 per cent. On one ship in 1856 no fewer worse for the immigrants who had no protection than 120 of the 385 immigrants on board died against false promises before it reached British Guiana. The conditions of the contracts varied according rate declined again in the 1860s and were under to the scheme and the colony involved. The indignities suffered immigrants, the British government would allow on passage did not end once the surviving contracts of only one year. In 1848 this was extended immigrants had landed and been set to work. to three years and in 1863 the planters got what they Their warm clothing was of little further use, had been pressing for from the beginning – five- and nothing more suitable for wear in the year contracts signed at the port of embarkation. The government offered contracts. A field labourer on a plantation had to 5-acre (2 ha) lots of Crown Land to immigrants work seven hours per day, and a factory labourer, on the expiry of their contract. The wages were Is per day (later Is 6d) for Guiana government modified the clause about a man over sixteen, provided that he was healthy, return passages to require the immigrant to pay a and 8d per day for a woman or boy under sixteen, quarter of the cost himself. In 1898 this was raised For the first three months after arrival, food would be supplied to the immigrant and 4d per day could The British Guiana Labour Laws of 1864 be deducted from his wages for this. The labourers greatly favoured the planter at the expense of the were to be housed in ‘barracks’ rent-free, and would immigrant. A breach of the labour laws was regarded receive free medicine and hospitalisation. The clause about free return passages was the For minor offences such as the failure to answer most controversial. The planters and colonial one’s name at the muster roll in the morning, harsh governments did not want repatriation terms, which fines of up to ? 5 could be imposed. Other minor were insisted on by the governments of the countries offences were punishable by up to three months in of origin and by the British government. At first, prison. If a planter broke his side of the contract, immigrants were promised free return passages on such as the failure to pay full wages, the immigrant completion of their contract. In 1854 they could had no recourse to the court, but could only go to claim repatriation only after living for ten years in the Petty Debts Department. EFFECTS SUGAR INDUSTRY * Their introduction resulted in the increased supply of labour. This of course created competition for estate work. * It is fair to argue that after 1845 many plantations that used immigrant labour found that they had a sure, steady supply of labour. Remember that the immigrants were contracted to work for a specified period. * Decrease in the price of labour. More land was bought and more mechanization was introduced in British Guiana * By the 1850's and 60's when there would have been a considerable importation of immigrants, the wages offered for work on estates were considerably lower than that which was offered immediately after Emancipation. * The introduction of immigrants, the cost of production decreased giving some estates a fighting chance to realise a decent profit. * As a result of the above factor s, sugar production increased, particularly in Trinidad and British Guiana. In these two territories also new estates were opened during this period, bringing these two colonies to a place of relative prosperity by 1870. In other instances, the closure of some estates was avoided. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL * New races were introduced, this resulted in a ‘permanent' change in the racial composition of the colonies. * The sexual relations of the Chinese and Indians with the Negroes resulted in a further mixing of the races. * Worsening of relations between the two groups  ­ Indians and Negroes. * The introduction of a culture, new language and the religions. * New foods * New festivals such as Hosein, Holi and Divali. Summary Chart of Immigration Labour brought to the West Indies 1834-1917 COUNTRY| Europeans (1834-1841)| Madeirans (1835-1882)| Africans(1841-1862)| Chinese (1852-1893)| East Indians (1838-1917)| British Guiana| | 30000| 14000| 12000| 239000| Jamaica| 5000| 100| 10000| 5000| 33000| Trinidad| | 2000| 8000| 3000| 134000| Grenada| | 800| 1500| | 3000| St Vincent| | 500| 1000| | 2700| St Lucia| | 500| 500| | 4000| St Kitts| 200| 200| 500| | 300| Antigua| | 2000| | | | Total| 5200| 36100| 35500| 20000| 416000| BIBLIOGRAHPY 1. Caribbean Story Bk 2: The Inheritors 2. Emacipation to Emigration